The Rabbit Test

The rabbit test, or "Friedman test", was an early pregnancy test developed in 1931 by Maurice Harold Friedman and Maxwell Edward Lapham at the University of Pennsylvania.

The test

The hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced during pregnancy and can be found in a pregnant woman's urine and blood; it indicates the presence of a fertilized egg. An earlier test, known as the AZ test, was developed by Selmar Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek.  When urine from a woman in the early months of pregnancy was injected into immature female mice, their ovaries would enlarge and show follicular maturation. The test was considered reliable, with an error rate of less than 2%. Friedman and Lapham's test was essentially identical but replaced the mouse with a rabbit. A few days after the injection, the animal would be dissected and the size of her ovaries examined.

The rabbit test became a widely used bioassay (animal-based test) to test for pregnancy. The term "rabbit test" was first recorded in 1949, and was the origin of a common euphemism, "the rabbit died," for a positive pregnancy test.  The phrase was, in fact, based on a common misconception about the test. While many people assumed that the injected rabbit would die only if the woman was pregnant, in fact, all rabbits used for the test died, as they had to be surgically opened in order to examine the ovaries.

A later alternative to the rabbit test, known as the "Hogben test," used the African clawed frog, and yielded results without the need to cut the animal open.  Modern pregnancy tests continue to operate on the basis of testing for the presence of the hormone HCG in the blood or urine, but no longer require the use of a live animal.

The Dalkon Shield

The Dalkon Shield was a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) developed by the Dalkon Corporation and marketed by the A.H. Robins Company. The Dalkon Shield was found to cause severe injury to a a disproportionately large percentage of its users, which eventually led to numerous lawsuits, in which juries awarded millions of dollars in compensatory and punitive damages.

History

In 1970, the A.H. Robins Company acquired the Dalkon Shield from the Dalkon Corporation, founded by Hugh J. Davis, M.D. The Dalkon Corporation had only four shareholders: the inventors Davis and Irwin Lerner, their attorney Robert Cohn, and Thad J. Earl, M.D., a medical practitioner in Defiance, Ohio. In 1971, Dalkon Shield went into the market, beginning in the United States and Puerto Rico, spearheaded by a large marketing campaign. At its peak, about 2.8 million women used the Dalkon Shield in the U.S.

At the time of its introduction, the Dalkon Shield was promoted as a safer alternative compared to birth control pills, which at the time were the subject of many safety concerns.  Initial reports in the medical literature raised questions about whether its efficacy in preventing pregnancy and expulsion rate was as good as those claimed by the manufacturer, but failed to detect the tendency of the device to cause septic abortion and other severe infections.

In June 1973, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conducted a survey of 34,544 physicians with practices in gynecology or obstetrics regarding women who had been hospitalized or had died with complications related to the use of an IUD in the previous 6 months. A total of 16,994 physicians responded, yielding 3,502 unique case reports of women hospitalized in the first 6 months of 1973. Based on the survey response rate, the CDC estimated that a total of 7,900 IUD related hospitalizations occurred during this 6-month period. Based on an estimate of 3.2 million IUD users, the CDC estimated an annual device-related hospitalization rate of 5 per 1000 IUD users. The survey also provided 5 reports of device-related fatalities, with four of these related to severe infection. One of the five was associated with the Dalkon Shield. Based on these data, the CDC estimated an IUD-related fatality rate of 3 per million users per year of use, which it compared favorably to the mortality risks associated with pregnancy and other forms of contraception. Importantly, the survey showed that the Dalkon Shield was associated with an increased rate of pregnancy-associated complications leading to hospitalization.

By 1974, approximately 2.5 million women had received the Dalkon intrauterine device. In June of that year, the medical director of A.H. Robins published a letter to the editor of the British Medical Journal stating that the company was aware of an "apparent increase in the number of cases of septic abortions" including 4 fatalities, but stating that "there is no evidence of a direct cause-and-effect relationship between wearing of the Dalkon Shield and the occurrence of septicemia". The letter recommended precautions including pregnancy tests for women who missed their period and immediate removal of the device in women who were found to be pregnant.  In October 1974, a series of four case reports of septic pregnancies were published in the journal Obstetrics and Gynecology".  In 1975, the CDC published a study associating the Dalkon Shield with a higher risk of spontaneous abortion-related death compared to other IUDs.

As many as 200,000 women made claims against the A.H. Robins Company, mostly related to claims associated with pelvic inflammatory disease and loss of fertility. The company eventually filed for bankruptcy. The company's representatives argued that pelvic infections have a wide variety of causes and that the Dalkon Shield was no more dangerous than other forms of birth control. Lawyers for the plaintiffs argued that the women they represented would be healthy and fertile today if not for the device. Scientists from the CDC stated that both arguments have merit.

Aftermath

More than 300,000 lawsuits were filed against the A.H. Robins Company – the largest tort liability case since asbestos. The federal judge, Miles W. Lord, attracted public commentary for his judgments, impositions of personal liability, and public rebukes of the company heads.  The cost of litigation and settlements (estimated at billions of dollars) led the company to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1985. As a result, Robins sold the company to American Home Products (now Wyeth).

In 1976, the Medical Device Amendments to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act mandated the U. S. Food and Drug Administration, for the first time, to require testing and approval of "medical devices", including IUDs.

The Dalkon Shield became infamous for its serious design flaw: a porous, multifilament string upon which bacteria could travel into the the uterus of users, leading to sepsis, injury, miscarriage, and death. Modern Intrauterine devices (IUDs) use monofilament strings, which do not pose this grave risk to users.

In popular culture

The A.H. Robins Company and the Dalkon Shield were featured in a February 2018 episode of Swindled, as well as a July 2018 episode of Crime Junkies.

What Protein Does for Your Body

What Is Protein?

Protein is one of a complex group of molecules that do all kinds of jobs in your body. They make up your hair, nails, bones, and muscles. Protein gives tissues and organs their shape and also helps them work the way they should. In short, protein is one of the building blocks that make you into who you are.

Emergency Energy

Protein isn’t your body’s first -- or even second -- choice for getting energy. That role is reserved for carbohydrates and fats. But when you’re running low on calories, or if you’re a serious athlete, thank protein for keeping you going past the point of normal energy stores. 

Muscle Builder

You need protein to keep up the size and shape of your muscles. As you lose weight, protein prevents you from losing muscle at the same time. If you lift weights for strength, protein is the key to building more muscle. 

Bone Strengthener

Studies show that getting the right amount of protein in your diet improves your bone health. It lowers your chance of osteoporosis (bone loss) by helping you hold on to your bone density, and it helps prevent breaks as you age, too.

Boosts Your Immune System

Proteins are made of amino acids. These compounds help turn key players in your immune system -- T cells, B cells, and antibodies -- into germ fighters that spot and kill harmful cells that enter your body before they can start an infection.

Cuts Cravings

Cravings are different than a true need for food. They come from your brain, not your stomach. Research shows that getting more protein can help curb these cravings, even late-night fridge raids.

Burns Fat

A high enough level of protein in your diet boosts your metabolism (the rate at which your body uses calories). This means you burn more calories a day -- even at rest -- than you would on a lower-protein diet.

Heart Helper

Studies on protein, specifically protein from plants, show that it can help lower blood pressure. It can also decrease your LDL or bad cholesterol levels, which lowers your risk of heart disease.

Heals Injuries

There’s a reason protein is called the building block of your body’s tissues and organs. It powers faster wound repair by reducing inflammation and creating new tissue at the site of the injury.

Moves Nutrients

If you think of your blood stream as a canal, proteins are the cargo ships that carry vitamins, minerals, sugars, cholesterol, and oxygen through it and into cells and tissues that need them to work. Some proteins even store certain nutrients, like iron, so you have a backup supply when you need it.

Can You Get Too Much Protein?

A high-protein diet has clear benefits, but can too much harm your health? Yes, and the cost could be a higher risk of cancer, higher cholesterol, kidney stones, weight gain, and constipation. But many of these potential effects depend on the type of protein you’re getting and your overall diet. Ask your doctor or nutritionist what’s best for you.

What Are the Best Ways to Get It?

Protein comes in lots of different forms. Reach for healthy, low-fat sources. Steer clear of saturated fats and highly processed options. Try to eat it throughout the day instead of cramming it into one meal. Keep up your fruit and veggie portions to get plenty of vitamins, minerals, and fiber.

What Are the Worst Restaurant Meals?

Buffalo Chicken Salad

The Count: 1,130 calories, 74 grams fat, 3,290 milligrams sodium

"Salad" is stretching it! Fried meat, oily sauce, and cheese push the calories in this meal through the roof at one popular restaurant. It has about as many as a whole pint of chocolate chip cookie dough ice cream. The salad also packs nearly 25% more fat.

 French Toast and Bacon

The Count: 810 calories, 16 grams saturated fat, 1,180 milligrams sodium

Want to use up a good chunk of your day's calories before noon? Eat this for breakfast. Better make it brunch, or you won’t have many calories left to spare for dinner. This dish has almost an entire day’s worth of saturated fat.

Fried Rice with Vegetables

The Count:  910 calories, 16 grams fat, 1,360 milligrams sodium

Getting Chinese takeout? Don't assume the veggie options are the healthiest. Vegetarian fried rice can pack an unhealthy wallop. Instead, go for steamed dishes with lots of veggies and brown rice if it’s on the menu. Keep the rice to a half-cup -- that’s about half the size of a baseball. Always ask for the sauce on the side.

 Pasta in Carbonara Sauce

The Count: 1,590 calories, 114 grams fat, 2,410 milligrams sodium

Grilled chicken and shrimp can be good choices. But if they're drenched in carbonara sauce, not so much. A plate of pasta with shrimp and chicken in carbonara can creep up to unhealthy levels. It also has more fat than you'd get from eating a half-dozen glazed doughnuts. 

 Deep Dish Pizza With Sausage

The Count: 2800 calories, 120 grams fat, 4880 milligrams sodium

Deep dish pizza can be deep trouble. One "individual" sausage pizza serves up more calories than most people should eat in a whole day. It also packs double the daily limit of fat. Want to make it better? Skip the sausage and opt for thin crust.

Club Sandwich

The Count: 1060 calories, 52 grams saturated fat, 3390 milligrams sodium

Club sandwiches are sneaky. Even with lean turkey or chicken, they can serve up a ton of calories and a whole day’s worth of saturated fat. Where is it all hiding? In the bacon, extra slice of giant bread, and mayo. Opt for a single-decker turkey sandwich instead. Choose plenty of veggies and add a few avocado slices for flavor.

 Large Fries

The Count: 1,314 calories, 57 grams fat, 1,327 milligrams sodium

In a pinch, you might think that just one order of fries -- and nothing else -- would be OK. Not really. Large fries can have more calories than a whole loaf of white bread, with an extra bonus of unhealthy saturated fat. If you're jonesing for fries, just get a small. You'll save 788 calories.

 Sliders

The Count: (3 sliders) 930 calories, 55.5 grams fat, 3345 milligrams sodium

How bad can those cute little burgers be? If you eat the whole order, pretty bad. A plate of 3 sliders at lunch will account for almost half of your daily calorie allotment. Solution? Don't eat the whole order. Pack up one or two in a doggie bag and have them tomorrow.

Eat Better: Find Hidden Calories

You can skip the most fattening restaurant meals by reading the menu closely. Look for clues. Words like pan-fried, sautéed, battered, breaded, au gratin, cheesy, creamy, buttered, deep-fried, béarnaise or crispy are usually signs of extra fat and calories. "Crisp" items are often deep-fried in oil.

Eat Better: Ask How It's Cooked

Preparation makes a big difference. Baking fish -- with herbs, veggies, and lemon juice -- adds very few calories or fat to the dish. Other healthy cooking methods include:

• Grilled
• Broiled
• Toasted
• Baked
• Poached
• Steamed

 Eat Better: Go á la Carte

Skip the jumbo portions and rich sides that come with restaurant entrees. Instead, go for small plates that you can share, or choose side orders for your meal. In a Mexican restaurant, try one corn taco of grilled meats, a cup of chicken-tortilla soup, a side salad, and a fruit dessert. You get exactly what you want and a fraction of the calories.

Eat Better: Downsize

When only a hamburger will do, or a drive-through is your only option, think small. Go for the child's meal or a junior burger. Try this switch to get your fast-food fix with fewer calories:

• Skip: The mega burger, large fries, large soda --1,480 calories
• Choose: Cheeseburger, kid's fries, extra-small soda -- 605 calories

 Eat Better: Hide Temptations

Restaurants like to give you a sense that there’s plenty on the table. It starts with an overflowing basket of bread or chips. Don't mindlessly devour a few hundred calories before your main meal. Ask the waiter to take away the basket of carbs before you've touched it -- or after you take a small portion.

Eat Better: Pasta

Pasta swimming in cream sauce can be an unhealthy choice. It's packed with fat, calories, and cholesterol. Instead, eat a small portion of whole-grain pasta topped with better sauces, such as:

• Red clam sauce
• Marinara sauce without meat
• Primavera sauce without cream
• Marsala sauce with wine, not butter

 Eat Better: Pizza

Pizzerias are used to getting special orders. A few simple changes can slash the calories and fat in your pie:

• Pile on veggies and skip the meat.
• Ask for extra sauce and half the cheese.
• After a slice or two, take the rest home.

Eat Better: Dessert

Fresh fruit is available at many restaurants now, even fast-food chains, thanks to demand from health-conscious diners. If it's not listed with the desserts, check the side dishes -- or ask for a special order.