Samhain (/ˈsɑːwɪn/ SAH-win, /ˈsaʊɪn/ SOW-in, Irish: [ˈsˠəunʲ], Scottish Gaelic: [ˈs̪ãũ.ɪɲ]; Manx: Sauin [ˈsoːɪnʲ]) is a Gaelic festival on 1 November marking the end of the harvest season and beginning of winter or "darker half" of the year. It is also the Irish language name for November. Celebrations begin on the evening of 31 October, since the Celtic day began and ended at sunset. This is about halfway between the autumnal equinox and winter solstice. It is one of the four Gaelic seasonal festivals along with Imbolc, Beltane, and Lughnasa. Historically it was widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man (where it is spelled Sauin). A similar festival was held by the Brittonic Celtic people, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales.
Samhain is believed to have Celtic pagan origins and some
Neolithic passage tombs in Ireland are aligned with the sunrise at the time of
Samhain. It is mentioned in the earliest Irish literature, from the 9th
century, and is associated with many important events in Irish mythology. The
early literature says Samhain was marked by great gatherings and feasts and was
when the ancient burial mounds were open, which were seen as portals to the Otherworld. Some of the literature also
associates Samhain with bonfires and sacrifices.
The festival was not recorded in detail until the early
modern era. It was when cattle were brought down from the summer pastures and
livestock were slaughtered. Special bonfires were lit, which were deemed to
have protective and cleansing powers. Like Beltane, Samhain was a liminal or
threshold festival, when the boundary between this world and the Otherworld
thinned, making contact with the aos sí (the 'spirits' or 'fairies')
more likely. Most scholars see them as remnants of pagan gods. At Samhain, they
were appeased with offerings of food and drink, to ensure the people and
livestock survived the winter. The souls of dead kin were also thought to
revisit their homes seeking hospitality, and a place was set at the table for
them during a meal. Mumming and guising were part of the festival from at least
the early modern era, whereby people went door-to-door in costume reciting
verses in exchange for food. The costumes may have been a way of imitating and
disguising oneself from, the aos sí. Divination was also a big part of the
festival and often involved nuts and apples. In the late 19th century John Rhys
and James Frazer suggested it had been the "Celtic New Year", but
that is disputed.
In the 9th century, the Western
Church endorsed 1 November as
the date of All Saints' Day,
possibly due to the influence of Alcuin,
and 2 November later became All Souls' Day. It is believed that
Samhain and All Saints/All Souls' influenced
each other and the modern Halloween.
Most American Halloween traditions were inherited from Irish and Scottish
immigrants. Folklorists have used the name 'Samhain'
to refer to Gaelic 'Halloween'
customs up until the 19th century
Since the later 20th century Celtic neopagans and Wiccans
have observed Samhain, or something based on it, as a religious holiday.
Etymology
In Modern Irish
and Scottish Gaelic, the name is
Samhain, while the traditional Manx
Gaelic name is Sauin. It is usually written with the definite article An tSamhain (Irish), An t-Samhain (Scottish
Gaelic), and Yn Tauin (Manx).
The ⟨amhai⟩
is a pentagraph for the sounds /əu̯/. Older forms of the word include the
Scottish Gaelic spellings Samhainn and Samhuinn. The Gaelic names for November are derived from Samhain.
These names all come from the Old and Middle Irish Samain or
Samuin [ˈsaṽɨnʲ], the name for the festival held on 1 November in medieval
Ireland, which has been traditionally derived from Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
*semo- ('summer'). As John T. Koch
notes, however, it is unclear why a festival marking the beginning of winter
should include the word for 'summer'.
Linguist Joseph Vendryes contends that it is unrelated, saying that the Celtic
summer ended in August. Linguists Xavier Delamarre and Ranko Matasović derive
it from Proto-Celtic *samoni- (< PIE *smHon- 'reunion, assembly'), whose original meaning is best explained as 'assembly, feast of the first month of the
year' (cf. Old Irish -samain 'swarm'),
perhaps referring to an 'assembly of the
living and the dead'.
Coligny calendar
On the Gaulish Coligny calendar, dating from the 2nd century
CE, the month name SAMONI is likely related to the word Samain. A festival of
some kind may have been held during the "three
nights of Samoni" (Gaulish TRINOX SAMONI). The month name GIAMONI, six
months later, likely includes the word for "winter",
but the starting point of the calendar is unclear.
Origins
Samain or Samuin was the name of the festival (feis) marking
the beginning of winter in Gaelic Ireland. It is attested in the earliest Old
Irish literature, which dates from the 9th century onward. It was one of four
Gaelic seasonal festivals: Samhain (~1 November), Imbolc (~1 February), Beltane
(~1 May), and Lughnasa (~1 August). Samhain and Beltane, at opposite sides of
the year, are thought to have been the most important. Sir James George Frazer
wrote in his 1890 book, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion that 1
May and 1 November are of little importance to European crop-growers, but of
great importance to herdsmen practicing seasonal transhumance. It is at the
beginning of summer that cattle are driven to the upland summer pastures and at the
beginning of winter they are led back. Thus, Frazer suggests that the festival
has pastoral origins.
Some Neolithic passage tombs in Ireland are aligned with the
sunrise around the times of Samhain and Imbolc. These include the Mound of the
Hostages (Dumha Na nGiall) at the Hill of Tara, and Cairn L at Slieve Na
Calliagh.
In Irish mythology
While Irish mythology was originally a spoken tradition,
much of it was eventually written down in the Middle Ages by Christian monks.
The tenth-century tale Tochmarc Emire ('The
Wooing of Emer') lists Samhain as the first of the four seasonal festivals
of the year. The literature says a peace would be declared and there were great
gatherings where they held meetings, feasted, drank alcohol, and held contests.
These gatherings are a popular setting for early Irish tales. The tale Echtra
Cormaic ('Cormac's Adventure') says
that the Feast of Tara was held every seventh Samhain, hosted by the High King
of Ireland, during which new laws and duties were ordained; anyone who broke
the laws established during this time would be banished.
According to Irish mythology, Samhain (like Beltane) was a
time when the 'doorways' to the
Otherworld opened, allowing supernatural beings and the souls of the dead to
come into our world; while Beltane was a summer festival for the living,
Samhain "was essentially a festival
for the dead". The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn says that the sídhe (fairy
mounds or portals to the Otherworld)
"were always open at Samhain". Each year the fire-breather Aillen
emerges from the Otherworld and burns down the palace of Tara during the
Samhain festival after lulling everyone to sleep with his music. One Samhain,
the young Fionn mac Cumhaill can stay awake and slays Aillen with a
magical spear, for which he is made leader of the Fianna. In a similar tale,
one Samhain the Otherworld Cúldubh comes out of the burial mound on
Slievenamon and snatches a roast pig. Fionn kills Cúldubh with a spear throw as
he re-enters the mound. Fionn's thumb is caught between the door and the post
as it shuts, and he puts it in his mouth to ease the pain. As his thumb had
been inside the Otherworld, Fionn is bestowed with great wisdom. This may refer
to gaining knowledge from the ancestors. Acallam na Senórach ('Colloquy of the Elders') tells how
three female werewolves emerge from the cave of Cruachan (an Otherworld portal)
each Samhain and kill livestock. When Cas Corach plays his harp, they take on
human form, and the Fianna warrior Caílte then slays them with a spear.
Some tales suggest that offerings or sacrifices were made at
Samhain. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn (or 'Book
of Invasions'), each Samhain the people of Nemed had to give two-thirds of
their children, their corn, and their milk to the monstrous Fomorians. The
Fomorians seem to represent the harmful or destructive powers of nature;
personifications of chaos, darkness, death, blight, and drought. This tribute
paid by Nemed's people may represent a "sacrifice
offered at the beginning of winter when the powers of darkness and blight are
in the ascendant". According to the later Dindsenchas and the Annals
of the Four Masters—which were written by Christian monks—Samhain in ancient
Ireland was associated with a god or idol called Crom Cruach. The texts claim
that a firstborn child would be sacrificed at the stone idol of Crom Cruach in
Magh Slécht. They say that King Tigernmas, and three-fourths of his people,
died while worshiping Crom Cruach their one Samhain.
The legendary kings Diarmait mac Cerbaill and Muirchertach
mac Ercae each die a threefold death on Samhain, which involves wounding,
burning, and drowning, and of which they are forewarned. In the tale Togail
Bruidne Dá Derga ('The Destruction of Dá
Derga's Hostel'), King Conaire Mór also meets his death on Samhain after
breaking his geasa (prohibitions or taboos). He is warned of his impending doom
by three undead horsemen who are messengers of Donn, the god of the dead. The
Boyhood Deeds of Fionn tells how each Samhain the men of Ireland went to woo a
beautiful maiden who lives in the fairy mound on Brí Eile (Croghan Hill). It
says that each year someone would be killed "to
mark the occasion", by persons unknown. Some academics suggest that
these tales recall human sacrifice, and argue that several ancient Irish bog
bodies (such as Old Croghan Man) appear to have been kings who were ritually
killed, some of them around the time of Samhain.
In the Echtra Neraí ('The Adventure of Nera'), King Ailill
of Connacht sets his retinue a test of bravery on Samhain night. He offers a
prize to whoever can make it to the gallows and tie a band around a hanged man's
ankle. Each challenger is thwarted by demons and runs back to the king's hall
in fear. However, Nera succeeds, and the dead man then asks for a drink. Nera
carries him on his back and they stop at three houses. They enter the third,
where the dead man drinks and spits it on the householders, killing them.
Returning, Nera sees a fairy host burning the king's hall and slaughtering
those inside. He follows the host through a portal into the Otherworld. Nera
learns that what he saw was only a vision of what will happen the next Samhain
unless something is done. He can return to the hall and warns the king.
The tale Aided Chrimthainn magic Fidaig ('The Killing of Crimthann mac Fidaig') tells how Mongfind kills
her brother, King Crimthann of Munster so that one of her sons might become
king. Mongfind offers Crimthann a poisoned drink at a feast, but he asks her to
drink from it first. Having no other choice but to drink the poison, she dies
on Samhain Eve. The Middle Irish writer notes that Samhain is also called Féile
Moingfhinne (the Festival of Mongfind or Mongfhionn), and that "women and the rabble make petitions
to her" at Samhain.
Many other events in Irish mythology happen or begin on
Samhain. The invasion of Ulster that makes up the main action of the Táin Bó
Cúailnge ('Cattle Raid of Cooley')
begins on Samhain. As cattle raiding typically was a summer activity, the
invasion during this off-season surprised the Ulstermen. The Second Battle of
Magh Tuireadh also begins on Samhain. The Morrígan and The Dagda meet and have
sex before the battle against the Fomorians; in this way, the Morrígan acts as a
sovereignty figure and gives the victory to the Dagda's people, the Tuatha Dé
Danann. In Aislinge Óengusa ('The Dream
of Óengus') it is when he and his bride-to-be switch from bird to human
form, and in Tochmarc Étaíne ('The Wooing
of Étaín') it is the day on which Óengus claims the kingship of Brú na
Bóinne.
Several sites in Ireland are especially linked to Samhain.
Each Samhain a host of otherworldly beings was said to emerge from the Cave of
Cruachan in County Roscommon. The Hill of Ward (or Tlachtga) in County Meath is
thought to have been the site of a great Samhain gathering and bonfire; the
Iron Age ringfort is said to have been where the goddess or druid Tlachtga gave
birth to triplets and where she later died.
In The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in
Britain (1996), Ronald Hutton writes:
"No doubt there were [pagan] religious observances as well, but none of
the tales ever portrays any". The only historic reference to pagan
religious rites is in the work of Geoffrey Keating (who died in 1644), but his source
is unknown. Hutton says it may be that no religious rites are mentioned
because, centuries after Christianization, the writers had no record of them.
Hutton suggests Samhain may not have been particularly associated with the
supernatural. He says that the gatherings of royalty and warriors on Samhain
may simply have been an ideal setting for such tales, in the same way, that many
Arthurian tales are set at courtly gatherings at Christmas or Pentecost.
Historic customs
Samhain was one of the four main festivals of the Gaelic
calendar, marking the end of the harvest and the beginning of winter. Samhain
customs are mentioned in several medieval texts. In Serglige Con Culainn ('Cúchulainn's Sickbed'), it is said
that the festival of the Ulaid at Samhain lasted a week: Samhain itself, and
the three days before and after. It involved great gatherings at which they
held meetings, feasted, drank alcohol, and held contests. The Togail Bruidne Dá
Derga notes that bonfires were lit at Samhain and stones cast into the fires.
It is mentioned in Geoffrey Keating's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn, which was written
in the early 1600s but draws on earlier medieval sources, some of which are
unknown. He claims that the feis of Tara was held for a week every third
Samhain, when the nobles and ollams of Ireland met to lie down and renew the
laws, and to feast. He also claims that the druids lit a sacred bonfire at
Tlachtga and made sacrifices to the gods, sometimes by burning their
sacrifices. He adds that all other fires were doused and then re-lit from this
bonfire.
Ritual bonfires
Like Beltane, bonfires were lit on hilltops at Samhain and
there were rituals involving them. By the early modern era, they were most
common in parts of the Scottish Highlands, on the Isle of Man, in north and mid-Wales, and in parts of Ulster. F. Marian McNeill says that they were formerly
need-fires, but that this custom died out. Likewise, only certain kinds of wood
were traditionally used, but later records show that many kinds of flammable
materials were burnt. It is suggested that the fires were a kind of imitative or
sympathetic magic; mimicking the Sun, helping the "powers of growth" and holding back the decay and
darkness of winter. They may also have served to symbolically "burn up and destroy all harmful
influences". Accounts from the 18th and 19th centuries suggest that
the fires, smoke, and ashes were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers.
In 19th-century Moray, boys asked for bonfire fuel from each
house in the village. When the fire was lit, "one after another of the youths laid himself down on the ground
as near to the fire as possible so as not to be burned, and in such a position
as to let the smoke roll over him. The others ran through the smoke and jumped
over him". When the bonfire burnt down, they scattered the ashes,
vying with each other that scatter them most. In some areas, two
bonfires would be built side by side, and the people—sometimes with their
livestock—would walk between them as a cleansing ritual. The bones of
slaughtered cattle were said to have been cast upon bonfires.
People also took the flames from the bonfire back to their
homes. During the 19th century in parts of Scotland, torches of burning fir or
turf were carried sunwise around homes and fields to protect them. In some
places, people doused their hearth fires on Samhain night. Each family then
solemnly re-lit its hearth from the communal bonfire, thus bonding the
community together. The 17th century writer Geoffrey Keating claimed that this
was an ancient tradition, instituted by the druids. Dousing the old fire and
bringing in the new may have been a way of banishing evil, which was part of
New Year festivals in many countries.
Divination
The bonfires were used for divination. In 18th-century
Ochtertyre, a ring of stones—one for each person—was laid around the fire,
perhaps on a layer of ash. Everyone then ran around it with a torch, "exulting". In the morning,
the stones were examined and if any were mislaid it was said that the person it
represented would not live out the year. A similar custom was observed in north
Wales and in Brittany. James Frazer suggests this may come from "an older custom of actually burning
them" (i.e. human sacrifice) or it may have always been symbolic.
Divination has likely been a part of the festival since ancient times, and it
has survived in some rural areas.
At household festivities throughout the Gaelic regions and
Wales, there were many rituals intended to divine the future of those gathered,
especially about death and marriage. Apples and hazelnuts were often
used in these divination rituals and games. In Celtic mythology, apples were
strongly associated with the Otherworld and immortality, while hazelnuts were
associated with divine wisdom. One of the most common games was apple bobbing.
Another involved hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head height,
with a lit candle on one end and an apple hanging from the other. The rod was
spun round and everyone took turns to try to catch the apple with their teeth.
Apples were peeled in one long strip, the peel tossed over the shoulder, and
its shape was said to form the first letter of the future spouse's name.
Two hazelnuts were roasted near a fire; one named for the
person roasting them and the other for the person they desired. If the nuts
jumped away from the heat, it was a bad sign, but if the nuts roasted quietly it
foretold a good match. Items were hidden in food—usually, a cake, barmbrack,
cranachan, champ, or sowans — and portions of it were served out at random. A
person's future was foretold by the item they happened to find; for example, a
ring meant marriage and a coin meant wealth. A salty oatmeal bannock was baked;
the person ate it in three bites and then went to bed in silence without
anything to drink. This was said to result in a dream in which their future
spouse offers them a drink to quench their thirst. Egg whites were dropped in
water, and the shapes foretold the number of future children. Young people
would also chase crows and divine some of these things from the number of birds
or the direction they flew.
Spirits and souls
Samhain was seen as a liminal time when the boundary
between this world and the Otherworld could more easily be crossed. This meant
the aos sí, the 'spirits' or 'fairies', could more easily come into
our world. Many scholars see the aos sí as remnants of pagan gods and nature
spirits. At Samhain, it was believed that the aos sí needed to be propitiated
to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. Offerings of
food and drink would be left outside for the aos sí, and portions of the crops
might be left in the ground for them.
One custom—described as a "blatant
example" of a "pagan rite
surviving into the Christian epoch"—was recorded in the Outer Hebrides
and Iona in the 17th century. On the night of 31 October, fishermen and their
families would go down to the shore. One man would wade into the water up to
his waist, where he would pour out a cup of ale and ask 'Seonaidh' ('Shoney'), whom he called "god of the sea", to bestow on them a good catch. The
custom was ended in the 1670s after a campaign by ministers, but the ceremony
shifted to the springtime and survived until the early 19th century.
People also took special care not to offend the aos sí and
sought to ward off any who were out to cause mischief. They stayed near to home
or, if forced to walk in the darkness, turned their clothing inside-out or
carried iron or salt to keep them at bay. In southern Ireland, it was customary
for Samhain to weave a small cross of sticks and straw called a 'Parshall' or 'Parshall', which was similar to Brigid's cross and God's eye.
It was fixed over the doorway to ward off bad luck, sickness, and witchcraft,
and would be replaced each Samhain.
The dead were also honored at Samhain. The beginning of
winter may have been seen as the most fitting time to do so, as it was a time
of 'dying' in nature. The souls of
the dead were thought to revisit their homes seeking hospitality. Places were
set at the dinner table and by the fire to welcome them. The belief that the
souls of the dead return home on one night of the year and must be appeased
seems to have ancient origins and is found in many cultures throughout the
world. James Frazer suggests "It was
perhaps a natural thought that the approach of winter should drive the poor,
shivering, hungry ghosts from the bare fields and the leafless woodlands to the
shelter of the cottage". However, the souls of thankful kin could
return to bestow blessings just as easily as that of a wronged person could
return to wreak revenge.
Mumming and guising
In some areas, mumming and guiding were a part of Samhain. It
was first recorded in 16th-century Scotland and later in parts of Ireland,
Mann, and Wales. People went from house to house in costume or disguise,
usually reciting songs or verses in exchange for food. It may have evolved from
a tradition whereby people impersonated the aos sí, or the souls of the dead,
and received offerings on their behalf. Impersonating these spirits or souls
was also believed to protect oneself from them. S. V. Peddle suggests the
guisers "personify the old spirits
of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune". McNeill
suggests that the ancient festival included people in masks or costumes
representing these spirits and that the modern custom came from this. In
Ireland, costumes were sometimes worn by those who went about before nightfall
collecting for a Samhain feast.
In Scotland, young men went house-to-house with masked,
veiled, painted, or blackened faces, often threatening to do mischief if they
were not welcomed. This was common in the 16th century in the Scottish
countryside and persisted into the 20th. It is suggested that the blackened
faces come from using the bonfire's ashes for protection. In Ireland in the
late 18th century, peasants carrying sticks went house-to-house on Samhain
collecting food for the feast. Charles Vallancey wrote that they demanded this
in the name of St Colm Cille, asking people to "lay aside the fatted calf, and to bring forth the black
sheep". In parts of southern Ireland during the 19th century, the
guisers included a hobby horse known as the Láir Bhán (white mare). A man
covered in a white sheet and carrying a decorated horse skull would lead a
group of youths, blowing on cow horns, from farm to farm. At each they recited
verses, some of which "savored
strongly of paganism", and the farmer was expected to donate food. By
doing so he could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune. This is akin to
the Mari Lwyd (grey mare) procession in Wales, which takes place at Midwinter.
In Wales, the white horse is often seen as an omen of death. Elsewhere in
Europe, costumes, mumming, and hobby horses were part of other yearly
festivals. However, in the Celtic-speaking regions, they were "particularly appropriate to a night
upon which supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or
warded off by human wanderers".
Hutton writes: "When
imitating malignant spirits it was a very short step from guising to playing
pranks". Playing pranks at Samhain is recorded in the Scottish
Highlands as far back as 1736 and was also common in Ireland, which led to
Samhain being nicknamed "Mischief
Night" in some parts. Wearing costumes at Halloween spread to England
in the 20th century, as did the custom of playing pranks, though there had been
mumming at other festivals. At the time of mass transatlantic Irish and
Scottish immigration, which popularized Halloween in North America, Halloween
in Ireland and Scotland had a strong tradition of guising and pranks.
Trick-or-treating may have come from the custom of going door-to-door
collecting food for Samhain feasts, fuel for Samhain bonfires, and/or offerings
for the aos sí. Alternatively, it may have come from the Allhallowtide custom
of collecting soul cakes.
The "traditional
illumination for guisers or pranksters abroad on the night in some places was
provided by turnips or mangel wurzels, hollowed out to act as lanterns and
often carved with grotesque faces". They were also set on windowsills.
By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to represent the spirits
or supernatural beings or were used to ward off evil spirits. These were
common in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands in the 19th century. They
were also found in Somerset. In the 20th century, they spread to other parts of
Britain and became generally known as jack-o'-lanterns.
Livestock
Traditionally, Samhain was a time to take stock of the herds
and food supplies. Cattle were brought down to the winter pastures after six
months in the higher summer pastures. It
was also the time to choose which animals would be slaughtered. This custom is
still observed by many who farm and raise livestock. It is thought that some of
the rituals associated with the slaughter have been transferred to other winter
holidays. On St. Martin's Day (11 November) in Ireland, an animal—usually a
rooster, goose, or sheep—would be slaughtered and some of its blood sprinkled
on the threshold of the house. It was offered to Saint Martin, who may have
taken the place of a god or gods, and it was then eaten as part of a feast.
This custom was common in parts of Ireland until the 19th century and was
found in some other parts of Europe. At New Year in the Hebrides, a man dressed
in a cowhide would circle the township unwise. A bit of the hide would be
burnt and everyone would breathe in the smoke. These customs were meant to keep
away bad luck, and similar customs were found in other Celtic regions.
Celtic Revival
During the late 19th and early 20th century Celtic Revival,
there was an upswell of interest in Samhain and the other Celtic festivals. Sir
John Rhys put forth that it had been the "Celtic
New Year". He inferred it from contemporary folklore in Ireland and
Wales, which he felt was "full of
Hallowe'en customs associated with new beginnings". He visited Mann
and found that the Manx sometimes called 31 October "New Year's Night" or Hog-unnaa. The Tochmarc Emire,
written in the Middle Ages, reckoned the year around the four festivals at the
beginning of the seasons and put Samhain at the beginning of those. However,
Hutton says that the evidence for it being the Celtic or Gaelic New Year's Day
is flimsy. Rhys's theory was popularized by Sir James George Frazer, though at
times he did acknowledge that the evidence is inconclusive. Frazer also put
forth that Samhain had been the pagan Celtic festival of the dead and that it
had been Christianized as All Saints and All Souls. Since then, Samhain has
been popularly seen as the Celtic New Year and an ancient festival of the dead.
The calendar of the Celtic League, for example, begins and ends at Samhain.
Related festivals
In the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages, Samhain is
known as the "calends of
winter". The Brittonic lands of Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany held
festivals on 31 October similar to the Gaelic one. In Wales, it is Calan Gaeaf,
in Cornwall it is Allantide or Kalan Gwav, and in Brittany, it is Kalan Goañv.
The Manx celebrate Hop-tu-Naa on 31 October, which is a
celebration of the original New Year's Eve. Traditionally, children carve
turnips rather than pumpkins and carry them around the neighborhood singing
traditional songs relating to hop-tu-naa.
Allhallowtide
In 609, Pope Boniface IV endorsed 13 May as a holy day
commemorating all Christian martyrs. By 800, there was evidence that churches in
Ireland and Northumbria (England) were holding a feast commemorating all saints
on 1 November, which became All Saints' Day. Alcuin of Northumbria apparently
inspired his friend Arno of Salzburg, Bavaria to hold the feast on this date.
James Frazer suggests this date was a Celtic idea (being the date of Samhain), while
Ronald Hutton suggests it was a Germanic idea, writing that the Irish church
commemorated all saints on 20 April. Some manuscripts of the Irish Martyrology
of Tallaght and Martyrology of Óengus, which date to this time, have a
commemoration of all saints "of
Europe" on 20 April, but a commemoration of all saints of the world on
1 November. It is suggested that Alcuin, a member of Charlemagne's court,
introduced the 1 November date of All Saints in the Frankish Empire, and in 835
the Empire officially adopted the date. In the 11th century, 2 November became
established as All Souls' Day. This created the three-day observance known as
Allhallowtide: All Hallows' Eve (31 October), All Hallows' Day (1 November),
and All Souls' Day (2 November).
It is widely believed that many of the modern secular
customs of All Hallows' Eve (Halloween) were influenced by the festival of
Samhain. Other scholars argue that Samhain's influence has been exaggerated and that All Hallows' also influenced Samhain itself.
Most American Halloween traditions were brought over by
Irish and Scottish immigrants in the 19th century. Then, through American
influence, these Halloween traditions spread to many other countries by the
late 20th century.
Modern paganism
Samhain and Samhain-inspired festivals are held by some
Modern Pagans. As there are many kinds of Neopaganism, their Samhain
celebrations can be very different despite the shared name. Some try to emulate
the historic festival as much as possible. Other Neopagans base their
celebrations on sundry unrelated sources, Gaelic culture being only one of
them. Folklorist Jenny Butler describes how Irish pagans pick some elements of
historic Samhain celebrations and meld them with references to the Celtic past,
making a new festival of Samhain that is inimitably part of the neo-pagan culture.
Neopagans usually celebrate Samhain on 31 October–1 November
in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 April–1 May in the Southern Hemisphere,
beginning and ending at sundown. Some Neopagans celebrate it at the
astronomical midpoint between the autumnal equinox and winter solstice (or the
full moon nearest this point), which is usually around 6 or 7 November in the
Northern Hemisphere.
Celtic Reconstructionism
Like other Reconstructionist traditions, Celtic
Reconstructionist Pagans (CRs) emphasize historical accuracy. They base their
celebrations and rituals on traditional lore as well as research into the
beliefs of the polytheistic Celts. They celebrate Samhain around 1 November but may adjust the date to suit their regional climate, such as when the first
winter frost arrives. Their traditions include staining the home and lighting
bonfires. Some follow the old tradition of building two bonfires, which
celebrants and animals then pass between as a ritual of purification. For CRS,
it is a time when the dead are especially honored. Though CRs make offerings
at all times of the year, Samhain is a time when more elaborate offerings are made
to specific ancestors. This may involve making a small altar or shrine. They
often have a meal, where a place for the dead is set at the table and they are
invited to join. An untouched portion of food and drink is then left outside as
an offering. Traditional tales may be told and traditional songs, poems, and
dances performed. A western-facing door or window may be opened and a candle
left burning on the windowsill to guide the dead home. Divination for the
coming year is often done, whether in all solemnity or as games. The more
mystically inclined may also see this as a time for deeply communing with their
deities, especially those seen as being particularly linked with this festival.
Wicca
Wiccans celebrate a variation of Samhain as one of their
yearly Sabbats of the Wheel of the Year. It is deemed by most Wiccans to be the
most important of the four "greater
Sabbats". Samhain is seen by some Wiccans as a time to celebrate the
lives of those who have died, and it often involves paying respect to
ancestors, family members, elders of the faith, friends, pets, and other loved
ones who have died. In some rituals, the spirits of the dead are invited to
attend the festivities. It is seen as a festival of darkness, which is balanced
at the opposite point of the wheel by the spring festival of Beltane. Wiccans
believe that at Samhain the veil between this world and the afterlife is at its
thinnest point of the whole year, making it easier to communicate with those
who have left this world.
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