Narcissism is a self-centered
personality style characterized as having an excessive interest in
one's physical appearance and an excessive preoccupation with one's
own needs, often at the expense of others.
It is human nature for people to be
selfish and narcissism exists on a spectrum that ranges from normal
to abnormal personality expression. There is a significant difference
between normal, healthy levels of narcissism and people who are
difficult/self-absorbed, or people having a pathological mental
illness like narcissistic personality disorder.
Etymology
In Greek mythology, the story is told
of Sisyphus, a man who believed that he could outsmart the gods. He
was found guilty of hubris and condemned to spend eternity rolling a
boulder up a hill. Each time the boulder would near the summit, it
would roll back down and Sisyphus would then be forced to repeat his
task.
The term "narcissism"
comes from a first-century book (written in the year 8 AD) by the
Roman poet Ovid. Metamorphoses Book III tells the mythical story of a
handsome young man, Narcissus, who spurns the advances of many
potential lovers. When Narcissus rejects the nymph Echo, who was
cursed to only echo the sounds that others made, the gods punished
Narcissus by making him fall in love with his own reflection in a
pool of water. When Narcissus discovers that the object of his love
cannot love him back, he slowly pines away and dies.
The concept of excessive selfishness
has been recognized throughout history. In ancient Greece, the
concept was understood as hubris.
It wasn't until the late 1800s that
narcissism began to be defined in psychological terms. Since that
time, the term narcissism has had a significant divergence in meaning
in psychology. It has been used to describe:
"a sexual perversion,
a normal [healthy] developmental
stage,
a symptom in psychosis, and
a characteristic in several of
the object relations [subtypes]".
Paul Näcke and Havelock Ellis (1889)
are the first psychiatrists, independent of one another, to use the
term "narcissism" to describe a person who treats
his own body in the same way in which the body of a sexual partner is
ordinarily treated. Narcissism, in this context, was seen as a
perversion that consumed a person's entire sexual life.
Otto Rank (1911) published the first
clinical paper about narcissism, linking it to vanity and
self-admiration.
Ernest Jones (1913) was the first to
construe extreme narcissism, which he called the "God-complex"
as a character flaw. He described people with God-complex as being
aloof, self-important, overconfident, auto-erotic, inaccessible,
self-admiring, and exhibitionistic, with fantasies of omnipotence and
omniscience. He observed that these people had a high need for
uniqueness.
Sigmund Freud (1914) published his
theory of narcissism in a lengthy essay titled "On
Narcissism: An Introduction". Freud postulated that all
humans have a level of narcissism from birth (primary narcissism), it
is healthy, and in time, evolves outward as love for others. Freud
had declared that narcissism was a necessary intermediate stage
between auto-erotism and object-love, love for others. He also
theorized that narcissism becomes a neurosis (secondary narcissism)
when individuals who had reached the point of projecting their
affections to others, turned their affection back on themselves. In
time these individuals become cut off from society and disinterested
in others.
Robert Waelder (1925) was the first to
conceptualize narcissism as a personality trait. His definition
described individuals who are condescending, feel superior to others,
are preoccupied with admiration, and exhibit a lack of empathy.
Karen Horney (1939) postulated that
narcissism was on a spectrum that ranged from healthy self-esteem to
a pathological state.
Waelder's work and his case study have
been very influential in the way narcissism and the clinical disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder are defined today. His patient was
a successful scientist with an attitude of superiority, an obsession
with fostering self-respect, and a lack of normal feelings of guilt.
The patient was aloof and independent from others, had an inability
to empathize with others, and was selfish sexually. Waelder's patient
was also overly logical and analytical and valued abstract
intellectual thought over the practical application of scientific
knowledge.
Misappropriation of the term
Increasingly over the last three
decades, social media, bloggers, and self-help authors have
indiscriminately applied "narcissism" as a label for
the self-serving and for all domestic abusers. This misappropriation
of the term is both damaging to those who deal with extreme
narcissists in their own lives, as well as the public view of people
with narcissistic personality disorder. Jeremy Sherman argues that we
as a society move away from the glorification of narcissism and
exaggerating its prevalence as well as minimizing the damage that it
can do.
Characteristics
Freud theorized that narcissism is
normal, healthy, and present from birth in all humans (primary
narcissism). It evolves in time to include affection for others.
Secondary narcissism, a neurosis, occurs when individuals reverse
course and turn their affection back onto themselves.
Narcissism is not necessarily 'good'
or 'bad'; it depends on the contexts and outcomes being
measured. In certain social contexts such as initiating social
relationships, and with certain outcome variables, such as feeling
good about oneself, healthy narcissism can be helpful. In other
contexts, such as maintaining long-term relationships and with
outcome variables, such as accurate self-knowledge, healthy
narcissism can be unhelpful.
Four dimensions of narcissism as a
personality variable have been delineated: leadership/authority,
superiority/arrogance, self-absorption/self-admiration, and
exploitativeness/entitlement.
Normal and healthy levels of
narcissism
Narcissism is an essential component of
mature self-esteem and basic self-worth. In essence, narcissistic
behaviors are a system of intrapersonal and interpersonal strategies
devoted to protecting one's self-esteem.
It has been suggested that healthy
narcissism is correlated with good psychological health. Self-esteem
works as a mediator between narcissism and psychological health.
Therefore, because of their elevated self-esteem, deriving from
self-perceptions of competence and likability, high narcissists are
relatively free of worry and gloom.
Destructive levels of narcissism
Narcissism, in and of itself, is a
normal personality trait, however, high levels of narcissistic
behavior can be damaging and self-defeating. Destructive narcissism
is the constant exhibition of a few of the intense characteristics
usually associated with pathological Narcissistic Personality
Disorder such as a "pervasive pattern of grandiosity",
which is characterized by feelings of entitlement and superiority,
arrogant or haughty behaviors, and a generalized lack of empathy and
concern for others. On a spectrum, destructive narcissism is more
extreme than healthy narcissism but not as extreme as the
pathological condition.
Pathological levels of narcissism
Extremely high levels of narcissistic
behavior are considered pathological. The pathological condition of
narcissism is, as Freud suggested, a magnified, extreme manifestation
of healthy narcissism. Freud's idea of narcissism described a
pathology that manifests itself in the inability to love others, a
lack of empathy, emptiness, boredom, and an unremitting need to
search for power, while making the person unavailable to others. The
clinical theorists Kernberg, Kohut and Theodore Millon all saw
pathological narcissism as a possible outcome in response to
unempathic and inconsistent early childhood interactions. They
suggested that narcissists try to compensate in adult relationships.
German psychoanalyst Karen Horney (1885–1952) also saw the
narcissistic personality as a temperament trait molded by a certain
kind of early environment.
Heritability
Heritability studies using twins have
shown that narcissistic traits, as measured by standardized tests,
are often inherited. Narcissism was found to have a high heritability
score (0.64) indicating that the concordance of this trait in the
identical twins was significantly influenced by genetics as compared
to an environmental causation. It has also been shown that there is a
continuum or spectrum of narcissistic traits ranging from normal and
a pathological personality. Furthermore, evidence suggests that
individual elements of narcissism have their own heritability score.
For example, intrapersonal grandiosity has a score of 0.23, and
interpersonal entitlement has a score of 0.35. While the genetic
impact on narcissism levels is significant, it isn't the only factor
at play.
Sociocultural influences
Alongside genetics, their environment
has a significant, though notably lower, impact on a person's level
of narcissism. People in more individualistic societies tend to have
higher levels of narcissism when compared to collectivist societies.
Furthermore, the differences between collectivism and individualistic
societies, while relatively insignificant, are measurable and
therefore worth noting. One study looked at differences in
advertising products between an individualistic culture, America, and
a collectivist one, South Korea. In American magazine advertisements,
it found, there was a greater tendency to stress the distinctiveness
and uniqueness of the person; conversely the South Korean ones
stressed the importance of social conformity and harmony. This
observation holds true for a cross-cultural analysis across a wide
range of cultural outputs where individualistic national cultures
produce more individualistic cultural products and collectivist
national cultures produce more collectivist national products; these
cultural effects were greater than the effects of individual
differences within national cultures.
Expressions of narcissism
Sexual narcissism
Sexual narcissism has been described as
an egocentric pattern of sexual behavior that involves an inflated
sense of sexual ability or sexual entitlement, sometimes in the form
of extramarital affairs. This can be overcompensation for low
self-esteem or an inability to sustain true intimacy.
While this behavioral pattern is
believed to be more common in men than in women, it occurs in both
males and females who compensate for feelings of sexual inadequacy by
becoming overly proud or obsessed with their masculinity or
femininity.
The controversial condition referred to
as "sexual addiction" is believed by some experts to be
sexual narcissism or sexual compulsivity rather than an addictive
behavior.
Parental narcissism
Narcissistic parents can see their
children as extensions of themselves and encourage the children to
act in ways that support the parents' emotional and self-esteem
needs. Due to their vulnerability, children may be significantly
affected by this behavior. To meet the parents’ needs, the child
may sacrifice their own wants and feelings. A child subjected to this
type of parenting may struggle in adulthood with their intimate
relationships.
In extreme situations, this parenting
style can result in estranged relationships with the children,
coupled with feelings of resentment and in some cases,
self-destructive tendencies.
Workplace narcissism
Professionals. There is a
compulsion of some professionals to constantly assert their
competence, even when they are wrong. Professional narcissism can
lead otherwise capable, and even exceptional, professionals to fall
into narcissistic traps. "Most professionals work on
cultivating a self that exudes authority, control, knowledge,
competence and respectability. It's the narcissist in us all—we
dread appearing stupid or incompetent."
Executives. are often provided
with potential narcissistic triggers:
inanimate – status symbols
like company cars, company-issued smartphone, or prestigious offices
with window views; and
animate – flattery and
attention from colleagues and subordinates.
Narcissism has been linked to a range
of potential leadership problems ranging from poor motivational
skills to risky decision making, and in extreme cases, white-collar
crime. High-profile corporate leaders that place an extreme emphasis
on profits may yield positive short-term benefits for their
organizations, but ultimately it drags down individual employees as
well as entire companies.
Subordinates may find everyday offers
of support swiftly turn them into enabling sources unless they are
very careful to maintain proper boundaries.
Studies examining the role of
personality in the rise to leadership have shown that individuals who
rise to leadership positions can be described as inter-personally
dominant, extroverted, and socially skilled. When examining the
correlation of narcissism in the rise to leadership positions,
narcissists who are often inter-personally dominant, extroverted, and
socially skilled, were also likely to rise to leadership but were
more likely to emerge as leaders in situations where they were not
known, such as in outside hires (versus internal promotions).
Paradoxically, narcissism can present as characteristics that
facilitate an individual's rise to leadership and ultimately lead
that person to underachieve or even to fail.
General workforce. Narcissism can
create problems in the general workforce. For example, individuals
high in narcissism inventories are more likely to engage in
counterproductive behavior that harms organizations or other people
in the workplace. Aggressive (and counterproductive) behaviors tend
to surface when self-esteem is threatened. Individuals high in
narcissism have fragile self-esteem and are easily threatened. One
study found that employees who are high on narcissism are more likely
to perceive the behaviors of others in the workplace as abusive and
threatening than individuals who are low on narcissism.
Celebrity narcissism
Celebrity narcissism (sometimes
referred to as Acquired situational narcissism) is a form of
narcissism that develops in late adolescence or adulthood, brought on
by wealth, fame and the other trappings of celebrity. Celebrity
narcissism develops after childhood and is triggered and supported by
the celebrity-obsessed society. Fans, assistants and tabloid media
all play into the idea that the person really is vastly more
important than other people, triggering a narcissistic problem that
might have been only a tendency, or latent, and helping it to become
a full-blown personality disorder. "Robert Millman says that
what happens to celebrities is that they get so used to people
looking at them that they stop looking back at other people."
In its most extreme presentation and symptoms, it is
indistinguishable from narcissistic personality disorder, differing
only in its late onset and its environmental support by large numbers
of fans. "The lack of social norms, controls, and of people
centering them makes these people believe they're invulnerable,"
so that the person may suffer from unstable relationships,
substance abuse or erratic behaviors.
Collective narcissism
Collective narcissism is a type of
narcissism where an individual has an inflated self-love of their own
group. While the classic definition of narcissism focuses on the
individual, collective narcissism asserts that one can have a similar
excessively high opinion of a group, and that a group can function as
a narcissistic entity. Collective narcissism is related to
ethnocentrism; however, ethnocentrism primarily focuses on
self-centeredness at an ethnic or cultural level, while collective
narcissism is extended to any type of ingroup beyond just cultures
and ethnicities.
Normalization of narcissistic
behaviors
Studies have shown that individuals who
score high on narcissism scales (self-sufficiency, vanity,
leadership, and admiration demand) posted selfies to social media
sites more than individuals who exhibit low narcissism scores. Men
posting selfies had higher narcissism scores than women.
Some commentators contend that the
American populace has become increasingly narcissistic since the end
of World War II. People compete mightily for attention. In social
situations they tend to steer the conversation away from others and
toward themselves. The profusion of popular literature about
"listening" and "managing those who talk
constantly about themselves" suggests its pervasiveness in
everyday life. This claim is substantiated by the growth of "reality
TV" programs, the growth of an online culture in which
digital media, social media and the desire for fame are generating a
"new era of public narcissism."
Also supporting the contention that
American culture has become more narcissistic is an analysis of US
popular song lyrics between 1987 and 2007. This found a growth in the
use of first-person singular pronouns, reflecting a greater focus on
the self, and also of references to antisocial behavior; during the
same period, there was a diminution of words reflecting a focus on
others, positive emotions, and social interactions. References to
narcissism and self-esteem in American popular print media have
experienced vast inflation since the late 1980s. Between 1987 and
2007 direct mentions of self-esteem in leading US newspapers and
magazines increased by 4,540 per cent while narcissism, which had
been almost non-existent in the press during the 1970s, was referred
to over 5,000 times between 2002 and 2007.
Similar patterns of change in cultural
production are observable in other Western states. For example, a
linguistic analysis of the largest circulation Norwegian newspaper
found that the use of self-focused and individualistic terms
increased in frequency by 69 per cent between 1984 and 2005 while
collectivist terms declined by 32 per cent.
Narcissism and evolution
Narcissism plays a role in evolution
through the process of assortative mating or the non-random choice of
a partner for purposes of procreation.
Humans mate assortatively regarding
age, IQ, height, weight, nationality, educational and occupational
level, physical and personality characteristics, and family
relatedness. In the "self seeking like" hypothesis,
individuals unconsciously look for a "mirror image"
of themselves in others, seeking criteria of beauty or reproductive
fitness in the context of self-reference. Alvarez et al. found that
facial resemblance between couples was a strong driving force among
the mechanisms of assortative mating: human couples resemble each
other significantly more than would be expected from random pair
formation. Since facial characteristics are known to be inherited,
the "self seeking like" mechanism may enhance
reproduction between genetically similar mates, favoring the
stabilization of genes supporting social behavior, with no kin
relationship among them.
Narcissism and Social Media
The Three Theoretical Models
The following three theoretical models
are used to predict the increase of social media use by narcissistic
individuals. It is important to know that these theories have not
been proven nor disproven due to the inconsistency in research
findings.
Self-enhancement model: This
model illustrates that social media can be used to enhance one’s
self-image by using features such as editing tools like photo-shop
and filters. Narcissists can use a platform like this as a strategy
to support a grandiose and unrealistic self-image. Social media
connects people from all around the world which can lift the
constraints of a persons’ immediate social environment. This can
give narcissistic types an advantage in which they can obtain the
feedback necessary for the sustainment of their self-image not only
from those within their immediate environment but also from strangers
around the world. This does not bode well for narcissistic
individuals because the favorable conditions of the social media
environment could facilitate or trigger narcissistic behavior.
The Fit model: Social media
networks are wide, but they are also shallow. These networks are not
suited for deep or intimate relationships, which is favorable for
those individuals high in grandiose narcissism because they tend to
avoid deep interpersonal relationships, are more comfortable with
emotionally shallow relationships, and thrive in environments where
they have more social influence. This theory suggests that those high
in grandiose narcissism will have more friends on social media
platforms.
Trait model: In relation to the
Big Five Theory Grandiose Narcissism is related to low agreeableness
and high extra-version and openness. Concerning the use of social
media, extroverts in general are recognized for having larger social
networks regardless of their levels of narcissism and they tend to
produce more content. This suggests that extra-version may be
connected to the tendency of narcissists to have more friends and
generate more content. Vulnerable narcissists tend to be low in
agreeableness and high in neuroticism. These types tend to put all
their eggs in one basket and focus on managing their impression while
remaining concerned for their privacy. They don’t want to attract
too much attention.
Controversies
There has been an increased interest in
narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) in the last 10
years. There are areas of substantial debate that surround the
subject including:
clearly defining the difference
between normal and pathological narcissism,
understanding the role of
self-esteem in narcissism,
reaching a consensus on the
classifications and definitions of sub-types such as "grandiose"
and "vulnerable dimensions" or variants of these,
understanding what are the central
versus peripheral, primary versus secondary features/characteristics
of narcissism,
determining if there is consensual
description,
agreeing on the etiological
factors,
deciding what field or discipline
narcissism should be studied by,
agreeing on how it should be
assessed and measured, and
agreeing on its representation in
textbooks and classification manuals.
This extent of the controversy was on
public display in 2010-2013 when the committee on personality
disorders for the 5th Edition (2013) of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders recommended the removal of
Narcissistic Personality from the manual. A contentious three year
debate unfolded in the clinical community with one of the sharpest
critics being professor John Gunderson, MD, the person who led the
DSM personality disorders committee for the 4th edition of the
manual.
